Type erasure is the process where compiler removes all type parameters at runtime for backward compatibility. Effects: 1) Generic type information only available at compile time, 2) Raw types at runtime, 3) Type parameters replaced with bounds or Object, 4) Bridge methods generated for inheritance. Limitations: can't create generic arrays, no runtime type information, no static fields of type parameters.
Reifiable types maintain runtime information: primitives, non-generic types, raw types, unbounded wildcards. Non-reifiable types lost during type erasure: generic types with parameters, bounded wildcards. Implications: can't create generic arrays, instanceof limitations, method overloading restrictions. Important for understanding generic type system limitations.
Generic singleton challenges: 1) Type parameter not available for static methods/fields, 2) Multiple type parameters create multiple instances. Solutions: 1) Generic static factory method, 2) Enum-based implementation, 3) Type token approach. Consider thread safety, serialization. Best practices: limit type parameters, document limitations, consider builder pattern alternative.
Cannot create arrays of generic types due to type erasure. Workarounds: 1) Create Object array and cast, 2) Use ArrayList instead, 3) Pass array creation to method parameter, 4) Use reflection (Array.newInstance). Each approach has trade-offs in type safety, performance, complexity. Consider collections as alternative to generic arrays.
Raw types are generic types without type parameters (List instead of List<String>). Problems: 1) Loss of type safety, 2) Potential runtime errors, 3) Mixing generic/non-generic code. Used for backward compatibility with pre-generics code. Modern Java should always use parameterized types. Exception: Class literals must use raw types.
Type constraints implemented through: 1) Bounded type parameters, 2) Multiple bounds, 3) Recursive type bounds, 4) Wildcards with bounds. Uses: ensuring method availability, type relationships, API contracts. Consider: readability, maintainability, type hierarchy complexity. Document constraints clearly. Balance flexibility and type safety.
Type tokens pass Class<T> objects to maintain runtime type information. Uses: 1) Generic factory methods, 2) Type-safe heterogeneous containers, 3) Reflection with generics. Implementation using Class.cast(), instanceof checks. Super type tokens (Neal Gafter) for preserving generic type information. Consider performance implications.
Variance handled through wildcards: covariance (? extends T), contravariance (? super T), invariance (T). Use cases: 1) Collection APIs, 2) Method parameters, 3) Return types. Related to Liskov Substitution Principle. Important for API design and collection framework usage. Consider PECS principle for proper usage.
Type witnesses explicitly specify type parameters when type inference fails. Required when: 1) Diamond operator ambiguity, 2) Generic method calls, 3) Anonymous inner classes. Syntax: ClassName.<Type>methodName(args) or new ClassName<Type>(). Improves code clarity, prevents inference errors. Consider readability vs verbosity trade-off.
Generic methods declared with type parameter before return type: <T> T methodName(T arg). Can have different type parameters than containing class. Type inference often allows omitting explicit type arguments. Static generic methods possible unlike static fields. Multiple type parameters allowed. Bounded type parameters supported. Generic constructors also possible.
Bounded type parameters restrict what types can be used with a generic class/method. Single bound: <T extends UpperBound>, multiple bounds: <T extends Class & Interface1 & Interface2>. Uses: 1) Accessing methods of bound type, 2) Ensuring type compatibility, 3) Expressing relationships between types. Class must be first in multiple bounds. Improves API design and type safety.
Type erasure can cause method signature conflicts: List<String> and List<Integer> become same signature after erasure. Bridge methods generated for covariant returns in inheritance. Cannot overload methods differing only in generic type parameters. Solutions: use different method names, add additional parameters, use type tokens. Important for API design and inheritance hierarchies.
Heap pollution: variable of parameterized type refers to object not of that type. Causes: 1) Mixing raw and generic types, 2) Unchecked warnings, 3) Array covariance with generics. Prevention: 1) Address unchecked warnings, 2) Avoid raw types, 3) Use @SafeVarargs when appropriate. Can lead to runtime failures. Important for type safety.
Generic API design principles: 1) Make declarations as general as possible, 2) Use bounded wildcards for flexibility, 3) Consider type parameter naming conventions, 4) Document type parameters, 5) Provide raw type compatibility, 6) Consider builder pattern for multiple type parameters. Balance usability, type safety, and maintainability. Address backward compatibility.
Generics enable types (classes and interfaces) to be parameters when defining classes, interfaces, and methods. They solve problems of: 1) Type safety by catching errors at compile time rather than runtime, 2) Elimination of type casting, 3) Enable implementation of generic algorithms. Introduced in Java 5 to provide compile-time type checking and remove risk of ClassCastException.
Upper bounded wildcard <? extends T> allows reading from collection but not writing (producer). Lower bounded wildcard <? super T> allows writing to collection but limited reading (consumer). PECS principle: Producer-Extends, Consumer-Super. Upper bound useful for read-only operations, lower bound for write-only operations. Unbounded wildcard <?> when both type parameters are unknown.
PECS: Producer Extends, Consumer Super. Use <? extends T> when reading values (producing), <? super T> when writing values (consuming). Examples: copy(List<? extends T> src, List<? super T> dest). Improves API flexibility and type safety. Related to covariance and contravariance. Essential for collection framework design.
Generic type inheritance rules: 1) Box<Integer> not subtype of Box<Number> even if Integer extends Number, 2) Generic class inheritance uses type parameters in extends clause, 3) Raw types bypass generic type checking. Bridge methods handle inheritance with different type parameters. Consider bounded type parameters for hierarchies.
Recursive type bound: <T extends Comparable<T>>. Uses: 1) Implementing comparable types, 2) Builder pattern with fluent interface, 3) Self-referential generic types. Examples in natural ordering, comparable collections. Ensures type safety in comparison operations. Common in API design for fluent interfaces and type-safe comparisons.
Reflection with generics challenges: 1) Type erasure limits runtime information, 2) Getting/setting generic types, 3) Creating generic arrays. Solutions: Type tokens, ParameterizedType interface, GenericArrayType. Consider performance impact, maintainability. Useful for frameworks, dependency injection. Document reflection usage clearly.
